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{{otheruses}} [[Image:USS Bunker Hill hit by two Kamikazes.jpg|thumb|right|300px|{{USS|Bunker Hill|CV-17|6}} was hit by ''kamikazes'' piloted by Ensign Kiyoshi Ogawa (photo below) and another airman on May 11, 1945. 389 personnel were killed or missing from a crew of 2,600.<ref>[http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/b10/bunker%20hill-i.htm Bunker Hill I], [[Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships]], Naval Historical Center, 22 November 2005.</ref>]] The {{nihongo|'''''Kamikaze'''''|神風||common translation: "divine wind"|}} ({{Audio-IPA|Kamikaze.ogg|[kamikaꜜze]}}) were [[suicide attack]]s by [[military aviation|military aviators]] from the [[Empire of Japan]] against [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] naval vessels in the closing stages of the [[Pacific War|Pacific campaign]] of [[World War II]], designed to destroy as many [[warship]]s as possible. ''Kamikaze'' pilots would intentionally attempt to crash their aircraft into Allied ships—planes often laden with [[explosive]]s, [[bomb]]s, [[torpedo]]es and full [[fuel tank]]s. The aircraft's normal functions (to deliver torpedoes or bombs or shoot down other aircraft) were put aside, and the planes were converted to what were essentially manned missiles in an attempt to reap the benefits of greatly increased accuracy and payload over that of normal bombs. The goal of crippling as many Allied ships as possible, particularly aircraft carriers, was considered critical enough to warrant the combined sacrifice of pilots and aircraft. These attacks, which began in October 1944, followed several critical military defeats for the Japanese. They had long lost aerial dominance due to outdated aircraft and the loss of experienced pilots. On a macroeconomic scale, Japan experienced a decreasing capacity to wage war, and a rapidly declining [[Output (economics)|industrial capacity]] relative to the United States. The Japanese government expressed its reluctance to surrender. In combination, these factors led to the use of ''kamikaze'' tactics as Allied forces advanced towards the [[Japanese Archipelago|Japanese home islands]]. While the term "kamikaze" usually refers to the aerial strikes, the term has sometimes been applied to various other intentional suicide attacks. The Japanese military also used or made plans for [[Japanese Special Attack Units]], including those involving [[Kairyu|submarines]], [[Kaiten|human torpedoes]], [[Shinyo (suicide boat)|speedboat]]s and [[Fukuryu|divers]]. Although ''kamikaze'' was the most common and best-known form of Japanese suicide attack during World War II, they were similar to the "[[banzai charge]]" used by Japanese soldiers. The main difference between ''kamikaze'' and ''banzai'' is that suicide is essential to the success of a ''kamikaze'' attack, whereas a ''banzai'' charge is only ''potentially'' suicidal — that is, the attackers hope to survive but do not expect to. Western sources often incorrectly consider [[Operation Ten-Go]] as a ''kamikaze'' operation, since it occurred at the [[Battle of Okinawa]] along with the mass waves of ''kamikaze'' planes; however, ''banzai'' is the more accurate term, since the aim of the mission was for battleship [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamato'']] to beach herself and provide support to the island defenders, as opposing to ramming and detonating among enemy naval forces. The tradition of [[suicide]] instead of defeat, capture, and perceived shame was deeply entrenched in the Japanese military culture. It was one of the main traditions in the [[samurai]] life and the ''[[Bushido]]'' code: [[loyalty]] and [[honor]] until death. [[Image:Ensign Kiyoshi Ogawa hit Bunker Hill (new).png‎|thumb|right|[[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]] [[Kiyoshi Ogawa]], who killed himself in a ''kamikaze'' attack on {{USS|Bunker Hill|CV-17|6}} on May 11, 1945.]] ==Definition and etymology== [[Image:MokoShurai.jpg|thumb|150px|right|The Mongol fleet destroyed in a typhoon, ink and water on paper, by [[Kikuchi Yōsai]], 1847]] The [[Japanese language|Japanese]] word ''Kamikaze'' is usually translated as "divine wind" (''kami'' is the word for "god", "spirit", or "divinity", and ''kaze'' for "wind"). The word ''kamikaze'' originated as the name of [[Kamikaze (typhoon)|major typhoon]]s in 1274 and 1281, which dispersed [[Mongol invasions of Japan|Mongolian invasion]] fleets. In Japanese, the formal term used for units carrying out suicide attacks during 1944–45 is ''tokubetsu kōgeki tai'' (特別攻撃隊), which literally means "special attack unit". This is usually abbreviated to ''tokkōtai'' (特攻隊). More specifically, air suicide attack units from the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] were officially called ''shinpū tokubetsu kōgeki tai'' (神風特別攻撃隊, "divine wind special attack units"). ''Shinpū'' is the [[Kanji#On.27yomi .28Chinese reading.29|on-reading]] (''on'yomi'' or Chinese-derived pronunciation) of the same [[kanji|characters]] that form the word ''kamikaze'' in Japanese. During World War II, the pronunciation ''kamikaze'' was used in Japan only informally in relation to suicide attacks, but after the war this usage gained acceptance worldwide and was re-imported into Japan. As a result, the special attack units are sometimes known in Japan as ''kamikaze tokubetsu kōgeki tai''. Since the end of the war, the term ''kamikaze'' has sometimes been used as a ''[[pars pro toto]]'' for other kinds of attack in which an attacker is deliberately sacrificed. These include a variety of suicide attacks, in other historical contexts, such as the proposed use of ''[[Fieseler Fi 103R (Reichenberg)|Selbstopfer]]'' aircraft by [[Nazi Germany]] and various [[suicide bombing]]s by [[terrorist]] organizations around the world (such as the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]), although kamikaze pilots attacked only military targets, while terrorists attack mostly civilian facilities. In English, the word ''kamikaze'' may also be used in a [[Hyperbole|hyperbolic]] or [[metaphor]]ical fashion to refer to non-fatal actions which result in significant loss for the attacker, such as injury or the end of a career. ==History== ===Background=== [[Image:D4Y Yoshinori Yamaguchi col.jpg|thumb|right|Lt Yoshinori Yamaguchi's [[Yokosuka D4Y]]3 (Type 33 ''Suisei'') "Judy" in a suicide dive against {{USS|Essex|CV-9|6}}. The [[Dive bomber|dive brakes]] are extended and the [[Self-sealing fuel tank|non-self-sealing]] port wing tank is trailing fuel vapor and/or smoke 25 November 1944.]] [[File:CV09 Essex USG-80-G-273032-.jpg|thumb|right|A Japanese ''kamikaze'' aircraft explodes after crashing into ''Essex''{{'}} flight deck amidships 25 November 1944]] [[Image:A6M5 52c Kyushu.jpg|right|thumb|Model 52c Zeroes ready to take part in a ''kamikaze'' attack (early 1945).]] Prior to the formation of ''kamikaze'' units, deliberate crashes had been used as a last effort when a pilot’s plane was severely damaged and he did not want to risk being captured; this was the case in both the Japanese and Allied air forces. According to Axell & Kase, these suicides "were individual, impromptu decisions by men who were mentally prepared to die."<ref>Axell, pp. 34, 40-41</ref> In most cases, there is little evidence that these hits were more than accidental collisions, of the kind that sometimes happen in intense sea-air battles. One example of this occurred on December 7, 1941 during the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]]. [[First Lieutenant]] Fusata Iida’s plane had been hit and was leaking fuel, when he apparently used it to make a suicide attack on [[Marine Corps Base Hawaii|Kaneohe Naval Air Station]]. Before taking off, he had told his men that if his plane was badly damaged he would crash it into a "worthy enemy target".<ref>Axell, p.44 —A monument at the site of Iida’s crash reads: '<small>JAPANESE AIRCRAFT IMPACT SITE. PILOT-LIEUTENANT IIDA, COMMANDER, THIRD AIR CONTROL GROUP, DEC. 7 1941.</small>’”</ref> The carrier battles in 1942, particularly [[Battle of Midway|Midway]], had inflicted irreparable damage on the [[Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service]] (IJNAS), such that they could no longer put together a large number of fleet carriers with well-trained aircrews.<ref name="U.S">U.S. Naval War College Analysis, p.1; Parshall and Tully, ''Shattered Sword'', pp.416–430.</ref> Japanese planners had assumed a quick war and were ill-prepared to replace the losses of ships, pilots, and sailors; at Midway, the Japanese lost as many aircrewmen in a single day as their pre-war training program had produced in a year.<ref>Peattie, ''Sunburst'', pp.131–134, 181–184, & 191–192..</ref> The following [[Solomon Islands campaign|Solomons]] and [[New Guinea campaign]]s, notably the Battles of [[Battle of the Eastern Solomons|Eastern Solomons]] and [[Battle of Santa Cruz Islands|Santa Cruz]], would further decimate their veteran aircrews and replacing their combat experience would be impossible.<ref>Peattie, ''Sunburst'', pp.176–186; Eric Bergerud, ''Fire in the Sky'', p.668.</ref> During 1943-44, U.S. forces were steadily advancing towards Japan. Japan's fighter planes were becoming outnumbered and outclassed by newer U.S.-made planes, especially the [[F6F Hellcat]] and [[F4U Corsair]]. Tropical diseases, as well as shortages of spare parts and [[fuel]], made operations more and more difficult for the IJNAS. By the [[Battle of the Philippine Sea]] in 1944, the Japanese now had to make do with obsolete aircraft and inexperienced aviators, against the better-trained and more experienced US Navy airmen, and its [[radar]]-directed [[combat air patrol]]s. The Japanese lost over 400 carrier-based planes and pilots, effectively putting an end to their carriers' potency, an action referred to by the Allies as the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot". On June 19, 1944, planes from the carrier {{Ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Chiyoda||2}} approached a US task group. According to some accounts, two made suicide attacks, one of which hit {{USS|Indiana|BB-58|6}}.<ref>''Fighting Elites: Kamikaze'': 9, 12</ref> The important Japanese base of [[Battle of Saipan|Saipan]] fell to the Allied forces on July 15, 1944. Its capture provided adequate forward bases which enabled U.S. air forces using the [[B-29 Superfortress]] to strike the Japanese home islands. After the fall of Saipan, the Japanese high command predicted that the Allies would try to capture the [[Philippines]], which were strategically important because of their location between the [[oilfield]]s of [[Southeast Asia]] and Japan. In August 1944, it was announced by the ''[[Domei]]'' news agency that a flight instructor named Takeo Tagata was training pilots in [[Taiwan]] for suicide missions.<ref>Axell, pp.40-41</ref> Another source claims that the first ''kamikaze'' mission occurred on September 13, 1944. A group of pilots from the army's 31st Fighter Squadron on [[Negros Island]] decided to launch a suicide attack the following morning.<ref>Toland, p.568</ref> [[First Lieutenant]] Takeshi Kosai and a sergeant were selected. Two {{convert|100|kg|lb|abbr=on}} bombs were attached to two fighters, and the pilots took off before dawn, planning to crash into carriers. They never returned, and there is no record of an enemy plane hitting an Allied ship that day. According to some sources, on October 14, 1944, {{USS|Reno|CL-96|6}} was hit by a deliberately-crashed Japanese plane.<ref>[http://www.ww2pacific.com/suicide.html ww2pacific.com, 2004, "World War II in the Pacific: Japanese Suicide Attacks at Sea".] Access date: August 1, 2007.</ref> However, there is no evidence that the attacker planned to crash. [[File:Arima Masafumi.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Masafumi Arima]] [[Rear Admiral]] [[Masafumi Arima]], the commander of the 26th Air Flotilla (part of the 11th Air Fleet), is also sometimes credited with inventing the ''kamikaze'' tactic. Arima personally led an attack by about 100 [[Yokosuka D4Y]] ''Suisei'' ("Judy") [[dive bomber]]s against a large [[Essex class aircraft carrier|''Essex''-class aircraft carrier]], {{USS|Franklin|CV-13|6}} near Leyte Gulf, on (or about, accounts vary) October 15, 1944. Arima was killed and part of a plane hit ''Franklin''. The Japanese high command and [[propaganda|propagandists]] seized on Arima's example: he was promoted [[Posthumous name|posthumous]]ly to [[Admiral]] and was given official credit for making the first ''kamikaze'' attack. However, it is not clear that this was a planned suicide attack,<ref>[http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/kamikaze/films/documentaries/nosurrender/ Bill Gordon, 2005, "(Review of) No Surrender: German and Japanese Kamikazes"] Access date: August 1, 2007</ref> and official Japanese accounts of Arima's attack bore little resemblance to the actual events. On October 17, 1944, Allied forces assaulted [[Suluan]] Island, beginning the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]]. The Imperial Japanese Navy's 1st Air Fleet, based at [[Manila]], was assigned the task of assisting the Japanese ships which would attempt to destroy Allied forces in Leyte Gulf. However, the 1st Air Fleet at that time only had 40 aircraft: 34 [[A6M Zero]] carrier-based fighters, three [[Nakajima B6N]] ''Tenzan'' ("Jill") [[torpedo bomber]]s, one [[Mitsubishi G4M]] ("Betty") and two [[Yokosuka P1Y]] ''Ginga'' ("Frances") land-based bombers, and one additional reconnaissance plane. The task facing the Japanese air forces seemed impossible. The 1st Air Fleet commandant, [[Vice Admiral]] [[Takijirō Ōnishi]] decided to form a suicide attack force, the Special Attack Unit. In a meeting at [[Clark Air Base|Mabalacat Airfield]] (known to the U.S. military as Clark Air Base) near Manila, on October 19, Onishi told officers of the 201st Flying Group headquarters: "I don't think there would be any other certain way to carry out the operation [to hold the Philippines], than to put a 250&nbsp;kg bomb on a Zero and let it crash into a U.S. carrier, in order to disable her for a week." ===First kamikaze unit=== [[Commander]] [[Asaiki Tamai]] asked a group of 23 talented student pilots, all of whom he had trained, to volunteer for the special attack force. All of the pilots raised both of their hands, volunteering to join the operation. Later, Tamai asked [[Lieutenant]] [[Yukio Seki]] to command the special attack force. Seki is said to have closed his eyes, lowered his head and thought for 10 seconds, before saying: "Please do appoint me to the post." Seki became the 24th ''kamikaze'' pilot to be chosen. However, Seki later said: "Japan's future is bleak if it is forced to kill one of its best pilots." and "I am not going on this mission for the Emperor or for the Empire... I am going because I was ordered to."<ref>Axell, p.16</ref> The names of four sub-units within the ''Kamikaze'' Special Attack Force were ''Unit Shikishima'', ''Unit Yamato'', ''Unit Asahi'', and ''Unit Yamazakura''. These names were taken from a patriotic poem ([[Waka (poetry)|waka]] or tanka), ''Shikishima no Yamato-gokoro wo hito towaba, asahi ni niou yamazakura bana'' by the Japanese classical scholar, [[Motoori Norinaga]]. The poem reads: {{quote|If someone asks about the ''[[Yamato-damashii|Yamato spirit]]'' [Spirit of Old/True Japan] of ''Shikishima'' [a poetic name for Japan]—it is the flowers of ''yamazakura'' [mountain [[cherry blossom]]] that are fragrant in the ''Asahi'' [rising sun].}} A less literal translation<ref>[http://www.norinagakinenkan.com/norinaga/shiryo/about.html "Motoori Norinaga: A scholar-physician who loved cherry blossoms"], [http://www.theeast.co.jp/English/index.htm THE EAST], Vol. XXVI No, 1</ref> is: {{quote| :Asked about the soul of Japan, :I would say :That it is :Like wild cherry blossoms :Glowing in the morning sun. }} ===Leyte Gulf: the first attacks=== [[File:SL Exp 5.jpg|thumb|right|''St Lo'' attacked by ''kamikazes'', October 25, 1944.]] [[Image:D4Y tail kitkun.jpg|thumb|right|[[Starboard]] horizontal [[Stabilizer (aircraft)|stabilizer]] from the tail of a "Judy" on the deck of {{USS|Kitkun Bay|CVE-71|6}}. The "Judy" made a run on the ship approaching from dead astern, it was met by effective fire and the plane passed over the island and exploded. Parts of the plane and the pilot were scattered over the flight deck and the forecastle.]] On October 25, 1944, during the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]], the ''Kamikaze'' Special Attack Force carried out its first mission. Five Zeros, led by Seki, and escorted to the target by leading Japanese ace [[Hiroyoshi Nishizawa]], attacked several [[escort carrier]]s. One Zero attempted to hit the bridge of {{USS|Kitkun Bay|CVE-71|6}} but instead exploded on the port catwalk and cartwheeled into the sea. Two others dove at {{USS|Fanshaw Bay|CVE-70|6}} but were destroyed by [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft]] fire. The last two ran at {{USS|White Plains|CVE-66|6}}. One, under heavy fire and trailing smoke, aborted the attempt on ''White Plains'' and instead banked toward {{USS|St. Lo|CVE-63|6}}, plowing into the flight deck. Its bomb caused fires that resulted in the bomb magazine exploding, sinking the carrier.<ref>Toland, p.567</ref> By day's end on October 26, 55 ''kamikazes'' from the special attack force had also damaged the large escort carriers {{USS|Sangamon|CVE-26|6}}, {{USS|Suwannee|CVE-27|2}}, {{USS|Santee|CVE-29|2}}, and the smaller escorts USS ''White Plains'', {{USS|Kalinin Bay|CVE-68|2}}, and ''Kitkun Bay''. In total, seven carriers had been hit, as well as 40 other ships (five sunk, 23 heavily damaged, and 12 moderately damaged). [[Image:HMAS Australia bridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The bridge and forward turrets of the [[County class cruiser|''County''-class heavy cruiser]] {{HMAS|Australia|D84|6}}, in September 1944. The officer facing right is Captain [[Emile Dechaineux]], killed on October 21, 1944 in what is incorrectly reported as the first ''kamikaze'' attack.]] Several suicide attacks during the early days of the Leyte Gulf operation have incorrectly been claimed as the first ''kamikaze'' attack. Early on 21 October, while covering the [[invasion of Leyte]], a Japanese aircraft (variously described as an [[Aichi D3A]]dive-bomber<ref name=Nichols>{{cite journal|last=Nichols|first=Robert|year=2004|title=The first kamikaze attack?|journal=Wartime|publisher=Australian War Memorial|issue=28|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/wartime/28/article.asp|accessdate=15 August 2010}}</ref> or a [[Mitsubishi Ki-51]] of the 6th Flying Brigade, [[Imperial Japanese Army Air Force]]<ref>[http://www.j-aircraft.com/research/rdunn/hms_aust/first_kam.htm Richard L. Dunn, 2002-05, "First Kamikaze? Attack on HMAS Australia—October 21, 1944" (j-aircraft.com)]. Access date: June 20, 2007. If the pilot was from the 6th Flying Brigade, it was probably either Lieutenant Morita or Sergeant Itano, flying out of [[San Jose, Mindoro]].</ref>) deliberately crashed into the foremast of the heavy cruiser {{HMAS|Australia|D84|6}}.<ref name=Nichols/> The attack killed 30 (including the cruiser's Captain, [[Emile Dechaineux]]) and wounded 64, including Australian force commander Commodore [[John Augustine Collins|John Collins]].<ref name=Nichols/> The crash is claimed to be the first ''kamikaze'' attack on an Allied ship in the [[Australia in the War of 1939–1945|official war history of the RAN]], and repeated in other sources, although the Special Attack Group did not begin operations until four days later: the crash was the decision of the pilot, not an action he was ordered to commit.<ref name=Nichols/> The sinking of the ocean tug {{USS|Sonoma|AT-12|6}} on 24 October is listed in some sources as the first ship lost to a ''kamikaze'' strike, but the attack ocurred before 25 October, and the aircraft used, a [[Mitsubishi G4M]], was not flown by the original four Special Attack Squadrons.<ref name="wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu">{{cite web |url=http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/kamikaze/background/ships-sunk/index.htm |title=47 Ships Sunk by Kamikaze Aircraft |last=Gordon |first=Bill |date=<!-- not specified, updated sometime after original publication in July 2007 --> |work=Kamikaze Image s|accessdate=15 August 2010}}</ref> ===Main wave of attacks=== Early successes – such as the sinking of ''St. Lo'' – were followed by an immediate expansion of the program, and over the next few months over 2,000 planes made such attacks. When Japan began to be subject to intense [[strategic bombing]] by B-29s, the Japanese military attempted to use suicide attacks against this threat. During the northern hemisphere winter of 1944-45, the IJAAF formed the 47th Air Regiment, also known as the ''Shinten'' Special Unit (''Shinten Seiku Ta'') at Narimasu Airfield, [[Nerima, Tokyo]], to defend the [[Tokyo Metropolitan Area]]. The unit was equipped with [[Nakajima Ki-44]] ''Shoki'' ("Tojo") fighters, with which they were to ram [[United States Army Air Forces]] (USAAF) B-29s in their attacks on Japan. However, this proved much less successful and practical since an airplane is a much faster, more maneuverable, and smaller target than a warship. The B-29 also had formidable defensive weaponry, so suicide attacks against the plane demanded considerable piloting skill to be successful. That worked against the very purpose of using expendable pilots and even encouraging capable pilots to bail out before impact was ineffective because vital personnel were often lost when they mistimed their exits and were killed as a result. [[Image:USS Columbia attacked by kamikaze.jpg|thumb|right|{{USS|Columbia|CL-56|6}} is attacked by a ''kamikaze'' off [[Lingayen Gulf]], January 6, 1945.]] [[Image:USS Columbia hit by kamikaze.jpg|thumb|right|The ''kamikaze'' hits ''Columbia'' at 17:29. The plane and its bomb penetrated two decks before exploding, killing 13 and wounding 44.]] ''Kamikaze'' attacks were being planned at far-flung Japanese bases. On January 8, Onishi formed a second official naval ''kamikaze'' unit, in [[Taiwan|Formosa]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}} The unit, [[Yushan (mountain)|''Niitaka'']] used Zeroes and "Judys", and was based at [[Kaohsiung International Airport|Takao Airfield]]. On January 29, 1945, seven [[Kawasaki Ki-48]] "Lilys" from the Japanese Army ''Shichisi Mitate'' Special group, took off from Palembang, [[Sumatra]] to strike the [[British Pacific Fleet]]. Vice Admiral Kimpei Teraoka and Captain Riishi Sugiyama of the 601st Air Group organized another second special unit, ''Mitate'' at [[Iwo Jima]] on February 16, as a U.S. invasion force approached.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}} On March 11, the U.S. carrier {{USS|Randolph|CV-15|6}} was hit and moderately damaged at [[Ulithi Atoll]], in the Caroline Islands, by a ''kamikaze'' that had flown almost {{convert|4000|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Japan, in a mission called [[Operation Tan No. 2]]. On March 20, the submarine {{USS|Devilfish|SS-292|6}} survived a hit from an aircraft, just off Japan. Purpose-built ''kamikaze'' planes, as opposed to converted fighters and dive-bombers, were also being constructed. [[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]] Mitsuo Ohta had suggested that piloted [[Glide bomb|glider bomb]]s, carried within range of targets by a mother plane, should be developed. The First Naval Air Technical Bureau (''Kugisho''), in [[Yokosuka]], refined Ohta's idea. [[Ohka|Yokosuka MXY7 ''Ohka'']] [[rocket plane]]s, launched from bombers, were first deployed in kamikaze attacks from March 1945. U.S. personnel gave them the derisive nickname "Baka Bombs" (''baka'' is Japanese for "idiot" or "stupid"). A specially-designed propeller plane, the [[Nakajima Ki-115]] ''Tsurugi'', was a simple, easily-built aircraft, intended to use up existing stocks of engines, in a wooden airframe. The [[Undercarriage|landing gear]] was non-retractable: it was jettisoned shortly after take-off for a suicide mission and then re-used on other planes. During 1945, the Japanese military began stockpiling hundreds of ''Tsurugi'', other propeller planes, ''Ohkas'', and suicide boats, for use against Allied forces expected to invade Japan. Few were ever used. ===Allied defensive tactics=== In early 1945, Commander [[John Thach]], a U.S. Navy aviator, who was already famous for developing effective aerial tactics against the Japanese such as the [[Thach Weave]], developed a defensive strategy against ''kamikazes'' called the "[[big blue blanket]]". This recommended larger [[combat air patrol]]s (CAP), further from the carriers than had previously been the case, a line of picket [[destroyer]]s and [[destroyer escort]]s at least {{convert|80|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the main body of the fleet to provide earlier [[radar]] interception, and improved coordination between fighter direction officers on carriers. This plan also called for round-the-clock fighter patrols over Allied fleets, though the U.S. Navy had cut back training of fighter pilots, so there were not enough Navy pilots available to counter the ''kamikaze'' threat. A final element included intensive fighter sweeps over Japanese airfields, and bombing of Japanese runways with [[Delay-action bomb|delayed action fuse]]s to make repairs more difficult.<ref>[http://rwebs.net/dispatch/output.asp?ArticleID=49 Bill Coombes, 1995, "Divine Wind The Japanese secret weapon – kamikaze suicide attacks"]</ref> [[Image:USS White Plains attack by Tokkotai unit 25.10.1945 kk1a.jpg|thumb|left|An [[A6M Zero]] (A6M5 Model 52) towards the end of its run at the [[escort carrier]] {{USS|White Plains|CVE-66|6}} on October 25, 1944. The aircraft exploded in mid-air, moments after the picture was taken, scattering debris across the deck.]] Late in 1944, the [[British Pacific Fleet]] (BPF) used the good high altitude performance of their [[Supermarine Seafire]]s on combat air patrol duties. Seafires were heavily involved in countering the ''kamikaze'' attacks during the [[Battle of Iwo Jima|Iwo Jima landings]] and beyond. The Seafires' best day was August 15, 1945, shooting down eight attacking aircraft for a single loss. Poor training tended to make ''kamikaze'' pilots easy targets for experienced Allied pilots, who also flew superior aircraft. The U.S. [[Fast Carrier Task Force]] alone could bring over 1,000 fighter aircraft into play. Allied pilots became adept at destroying enemy aircraft before they struck ships. Allied gunners had begun to develop techniques to negate ''kamikaze'' attacks. They fired their [[naval artillery|high-caliber]] guns into the sea in front of attacking planes flying near sea level, in order to create walls of water which would swamp the attacking planes. Light rapid fire anti-aircraft weapons such as the [[Bofors 40 mm|40 mm Bofors]] and [[Oerlikon 20 mm cannon]]s were ineffective, however heavy anti-aircraft guns such as the [[5"/38 caliber gun]] (127&nbsp;mm) had the punch to blow ''kamikazes'' out of the air.<ref name="Oerlikon">{{cite web |url=http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_2cm-70_mk234.htm |title=United States of America 20 mm/70 (0.79") Marks 2, 3 & 4 |accessdate=2007-02-25 |year=2006 |month=September |author=DiGiulian, Tony |publisher = navweaps.com}}</ref> Although such tactics could not be used against ''Okhas'' and other fast, high-angle attacks, these were in turn more vulnerable to [[Anti aircraft|anti-aircraft]] fire. In 1945, large amounts of anti-aircraft shells with [[radio]] frequency [[proximity fuze]]s became available, these were on average seven times more effective than regular shells. ===Final phase=== [[Image:USS Louisville hit by kamikaze.jpg|thumb|left|Puffs of smoke left by anti-aircraft shells and the splashes left by cannon and machine gun rounds detail the desperate few seconds of a vain struggle, as the {{USS|Louisville|CA-28|6}} is struck by a ''kamikaze'' at the [[Battle of Lingayen Gulf]], January 1945.]] [[File:HMS Victorious on fire.jpg|thumb|right|The Royal Navy carrier {{HMS|Victorious|R38|6}} after three successive ''kamikaze'' hits, her armoured deck meant that damage was superficial and she was launching planes within one hour of the attack.]] The peak in ''kamikaze'' attacks came during the period of April-June 1945, at the [[Battle of Okinawa]]. On April 6, 1945, waves of planes made hundreds of attacks in Operation ''Kikusui'' ("floating chrysanthemums").<ref>Kennedy, Maxwell Taylor Danger's Hour, The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot who Crippled Her, Simon and Schuster, New York, 2008 ISBN 9780743260800</ref> At Okinawa, ''kamikaze'' attacks focused at first on Allied [[destroyer]]s on picket duty, and then on the carriers in the middle of the fleet. Suicide attacks by planes or boats at Okinawa sank or put out of action at least 30 U.S. warships,<ref name=navycas>Naval Historical Center, 2004, [http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq82-1.htm ''Casualties: U.S. Navy and Coast Guard Vessels, Sunk or Damaged Beyond Repair during World War II, December 7, 1941-October 1, 1945''] (U.S. Navy) Access date: December 1, 2007.</ref> and at least three U.S. [[merchant ship]]s,<ref>[http://www.usmm.org/sunk45.html American Merchant Marine at War (website), 2006, "Chronological List of U.S. Ships Sunk or Damaged during 1945"] Access date: December 1, 2007.</ref> along with some from other Allied forces. The attacks expended 1,465 planes. Many warships of all classes were damaged, some severely, but no aircraft carriers, [[battleship]]s or [[cruiser]]s were sunk by ''kamikaze'' at Okinawa. Most of the ships lost were destroyers or smaller vessels, especially those on picket duty.<ref name=navycas/> U.S. carriers, with their wooden flight decks, [[Comparison of armoured to unarmoured flight deck designs|appeared to suffer more damage]] from ''kamikaze'' hits than the reinforced steel-decked carriers from the [[British Pacific Fleet]]. US carriers also suffered considerably heavier casualties from ''kamikaze'' strikes, for instance 346 men were killed in one attack on [[USS Bunker Hill (CV-17)|USS ''Bunker Hill'']]. The resilience of well-armoured vessels was shown on May 4, just after 11:30, when there was a wave of suicide attacks against the BPF. One Japanese plane made a steep dive from "a great height" at the carrier {{HMS|Formidable|67|6}} and was engaged by AA guns.<ref>[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Navy-c24.html Sydney David Waters, 1956, ''The Royal New Zealand Navy'', Historical Publications Branch, Wellington. p.383-4] Access date: December 1, 2007.</ref> Although it was hit by gunfire, the ''kamikaze'' crashed into the flight deck, making a crater {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|0.6|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} wide and {{convert|0.6|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} deep. A long steel splinter speared down, through the hangar deck and the main boiler room (where it ruptured a steam line), before coming to rest in a fuel tank near the aircraft park, where it started a major fire. Eight personnel were killed and 47 were wounded. One Corsair and 10 [[TBF Avenger|Avenger]]s were destroyed. However, the fires were gradually brought under control, and the crater in the deck was repaired with concrete and steel plate. By 17:00, Corsairs were able to land. On May 9, ''Formidable'' was again damaged by a ''kamikaze'', as were the carrier {{HMS|Victorious|R38|6}} and the battleship {{HMS|Howe|32|6}}. The British were able to clear the flight deck and resume flight operations in just hours, while their American counterparts took a few days or even months, as observed by a USN liaison officer on [[HMS Indefatigable (R10)|HMS ''Indefatigable'']] who commented: "When a kamikaze hits a U.S. carrier it means 6 months of repair at [[Pearl Harbor|Pearl [Harbor]]]. When a kamikaze hits a Limey carrier it’s just a case of "Sweepers, man your brooms."” Sometimes twin-engined aircraft were used in planned ''kamikaze'' attacks. For example, [[Mitsubishi Ki-67]] ''Hiryū'' ("Peggy") medium bombers, based on Formosa, undertook ''kamikaze'' attacks on Allied forces off Okinawa. [[Rear Admiral]] [[Matome Ugaki]], the second in command of the Combined Pacific Fleet, directed the last official ''kamikaze'' attack, sending "Judies" from the 701st Air Group against the Allied fleet at Okinawa on August 15, 1945. ==Effects== [[Image:USS Intrepid CV-11 kamikaze strike.jpg||thumb|right|A crewman in an [[anti-aircraft|AA]] gun aboard the battleship {{USS|New Jersey|BB-62|2}} watches a ''kamikaze'' plane descend upon {{USS|Intrepid|CV-11|2}} 25 November 1944]] As the end of the war approached, the Allies did not suffer significantly more serious losses, despite having far more ships and facing a greater intensity of ''kamikaze'' attacks. Although causing some of the heaviest casualties on US carriers in 1945, the IJN had sacrificed 2,525 ''kamikaze'' pilots and the IJAAF 1,387; far more than they had lost in 1942 where they sunk or crippled three carriers (albeit without inflicting significant casualties). In 1942 when US Navy vessels were scarce, the temporary absence of key warships from the combat zone would tie up operational initiatives. However, by 1945, the US Navy was large enough that damaged ships could be detached back home for repair without significantly hampering the fleet's operational capability. The only surface losses were destroyers and smaller ships that lacked the capability to sustain heavy damage. Overall, the ''kamikazes'' were unable to turn the tide of the war and stop the Allied invasion. The destructive potential of the ''kamikaze'' sustained postwar funding of [[Operation Bumblebee]] until the [[RIM-8 Talos]] guided missile became operational in 1959.<ref name="nmsu">{{cite web|url=http://nmsua.edu/tiopete/files/2008/12/wspgcoldbook.pdf|title=A Brief History of White Sands Proving Ground 1941-1965|publisher=New Mexico State University|accessdate=2010-08-19}}</ref> In the immediate aftermath of kamikaze strikes, British carriers with their armoured flight decks appeared to recover more quickly [[Comparison of armoured to unarmoured flight deck designs#Post War Analysis|compared to their US counterparts]]. However, post-war analysis showed that some British carriers such as HMS ''Formidable'' did suffer structural damage that led them to be written off and scrapped, as beyond economic repair, but [[Economic history of the United_Kingdom#1945.E2.80.931959: the_post-War era|Britain's dire post war finances]] and the constantly declining size of the Royal Navy undoubtedly played a role in deciding not to repair damaged carriers. By contrast, even the most seriously damaged American carriers such USS ''Bunker Hill'' were successfully repaired to good condition, although they saw no service after WWII as they were considered surplus. The number of ships sunk is a matter of debate. According to a wartime Japanese propaganda announcement, the missions sank 81 ships and damaged 195, and according to a Japanese tally, suicide attacks accounted for up to 80% of the U.S. losses in the final phase of the war in the Pacific. In a 2004 book, ''World War II'', the historians Wilmott, Cross and Messenger stated that more than 70 U.S. vessels were "sunk or damaged beyond repair" by ''kamikazes''. According to a [[United States Air Force|U.S Air Force]] webpage: :Approximately 2,800 Kamikaze attackers sunk 34 Navy ships, damaged 368 others, killed 4,900 sailors, and wounded over 4,800. Despite [[radar]] detection and cuing, airborne interception and attrition, and massive anti-aircraft barrages, a distressing 14 percent of Kamikazes survived to score a hit on a ship; nearly 8.5 percent of all ships hit by Kamikazes sank.<ref>[https://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/EARS/Hallionpapers/precisionweaponspower.htm Dr Richard P. Hallion, 1999, "Precision Weapons, Power Projection, and The Revolution In Military Affairs"] (USAF Historical Studies Office). Access date: September 15, 2007.</ref> Australian journalists Denis and Peggy Warner, in a 1982 book with Japanese naval historian Seno Sadao (''The Sacred Warriors: Japan’s Suicide Legions''), arrived at a total of 57 ships sunk by ''kamikazes''. However, Bill Gordon, an American [[Japanese Studies|Japanologist]] who specialises in ''kamikazes'', states in a 2007 article that 47 ships were sunk by ''kamikaze'' aircraft.<ref name="wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu"/> Gordon says that the Warners and Seno included ten ships that did not sink. His list consists of: * three escort carriers: ''St. Lo'', ''Ommaney Bay'', ''Bismarck Sea'' * 14 destroyers, including the last ship to be sunk, ''Callaghan'' on July 29, 1945, off Okinawa * three [[high-speed transport]] ships * five [[Landing Ship, Tank]] * four [[Landing Ship Medium]] * three [[Landing Ship Medium|Landing Ship Medium (Rocket)]] * one auxiliary [[Petroleum tanker|tanker]] * three Canadian [[Victory ship]]s * three [[Liberty ship]]s * two [[high-speed minesweeper]]s * one [[Auk class minesweeper]] * one [[submarine chaser]] * two [[PT boat]]s * two [[Landing Craft Support]] ==Recruitment== [[File:Kamikaze-ManchesterMSI crop.jpg|thumb|left|Japanese Yokosuka MXY-7 ''[[Ohka]]'' ("cherry blossom"), a specially built rocket-powered ''kamikaze'' aircraft used towards the end of the war. The U.S. called them ''Baka'' ("idiot").]] The establishment of ''kamikaze'' forces required recruiting men for the task; this proved easier than the commanders had expected. Qualifications were simple: "youth, alertness and zeal. Flight experience was of minimal importance and expertise in landing a luxury". Captain [[Motoharu Okamura]] commented that "there were so many volunteers for suicide missions that he referred to them as a swarm of bees," explaining: "Bees die after they have stung."<ref name="Axell, p.35">Axell, p.35</ref> Okamura is credited with being the first to propose the ''kamikaze'' attacks. He had expressed his desire to lead a volunteer group of suicide attacks some four months before Admiral [[Takijiro Ohnishi]], commander of the Japanese naval air forces in the Philippines, presented the idea to his staff. While Vice Admiral [[Shigeru Fukudome]], commander of the second air fleet, was inspecting the 341st Air Group, Captain Okamura took the chance to express his ideas on crash-dive tactics. “In our present situation I firmly believe that the only way to swing the war in our favor is to resort to crash-dive attacks with our planes. There is no other way. There will be more than enough volunteers for this chance to save our country, and I would like to command such an operation. Provide me with 300 planes and I will turn the tide of war.”<ref>Inoguchi, Rikihei, The Divine Wind, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1958, page 139.</ref> When the volunteers arrived for duty in the corps there were twice as many persons as aircraft. "After the war, some commanders would express regret for allowing superfluous crews to accompany sorties, sometimes squeezing themselves aboard bombers and fighters so as to encourage the suicide pilots and, it seems, join in the exultation of sinking a large enemy vessel."<!-- Ibid., 39 --> Many of the ''kamikaze'' pilots believed their death would pay the debt they owed and show the love they had for their families, friends, and emperor. "So eager were many minimally trained pilots to take part in suicide missions that when their sorties were delayed or aborted, the pilots became deeply despondent. Many of those who were selected for a bodycrashing mission were described as being extraordinarily blissful immediately before their final sortie."<ref>Axell, p.40</ref> ==Training== {{Quote|When you eliminate all thoughts about life and death, you will be able to totally disregard your earthly life. This will also enable you to concentrate your attention on eradicating the enemy with unwavering determination, meanwhile reinforcing your excellence in flight skills.|An excerpt from a kamikaze pilots' manual.}} ''Tokkōtai'' pilot training, as described by Kasuga Takeo,{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} generally "consisted of incredibly strenuous training, coupled with cruel and torturous corporal punishment as a daily routine." Irokawa Daikichi, who trained at Tsuchiura Naval Air Base, recalled that he "was struck on the face so hard and frequently that [his] face was no longer recognizable." He also wrote: "I was hit so hard that I could no longer see and fell on the floor. The minute I got up, I was hit again by a club so that I would confess." This brutal "training" was justified by the idea that it would instill a "soldier's fighting spirit." However, daily beatings and corporal punishment eliminated patriotism among many pilots.<ref name="Ohnuki-Tierney">Ohnuki-Tierney {{page number}}</ref> Pilots were given a manual which detailed how they were supposed to think, prepare, and attack. From this manual, pilots were told to "attain a high level of spiritual training," and to "keep [their] health in the very best condition." These things, among others, were meant to put the pilot into the mindset in which he would be mentally ready to die. The ''tokkōtai'' pilot's manual also explained how a pilot may turn back if the pilot could not locate a target and that "[a pilot] should not waste [his] life lightly." However, one pilot who continually came back to base was shot after his ninth return.<ref name="Ohnuki-Tierney"/> {{Quote_box |width=30% |align=right |quote=We tried to live with 120 percent intensity, rather than waiting for death. We read and read, trying to understand why we had to die in our early twenties. We felt the clock ticking away towards our death, every sound of the clock shortening our lives. |source=Irokawa Daikichi, ''Kamikaze Diaries: Reflections of Japanese Student Soldiers'' |}} The manual was very detailed in how a pilot should attack. A pilot would dive towards his target and "aim for a point between the bridge tower and the smoke stacks". Entering a smoke stack was also said to be "effective". Pilots were told not to aim at a ship's bridge tower or gun turret but instead to look for elevators or the flight deck to crash into. For horizontal attacks, the pilot was to "aim at the middle of the vessel, slightly higher than the waterline" or to "aim at the entrance to the aircraft hangar, or the bottom of the stack" if the former was too difficult. The ''tokkōtai'' pilot's manual told pilots never to close their eyes. This was because if a pilot closed his eyes he would lower the chances of hitting his target. In the final moments before the crash, the pilot was to yell "''Hissatsu''" at the top of his lungs which roughly translates to "kill without fail".<ref>http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/619508.html, accessed April 20, 2007</ref><ref>http://warbirdforum.com/tokko.htm, accessed April 20, 2007</ref> ==Cultural background== [[Image:72th_Shinbu_1945_Kamikaze.jpg|left|thumb|May 26, 1945. Corporal Yukio Araki, holding a puppy, with four other pilots of the 72nd ''Shinbu'' Squadron at [[Kaseda, Kagoshima|Bansei]], [[Kagoshima]]. Araki died the following day, at age 17, in a suicide attack on ships near Okinawa.]] In 1944–45, the Japanese were heavily influenced by [[Shinto]] beliefs. Among other things, [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] worship was stressed after Shinto was established as a state religion during the [[Meiji Restoration]]. As time went on, Shinto was used increasingly in the promotion of nationalist sentiment. In 1890, the [[Imperial Rescript on Education]] was passed, under which students were required to ritually recite its oath to offer themselves "courageously to the State" as well as protect the Imperial family. The ultimate offering was to give up one’s life. It was an honor to die for Japan and the Emperor. Axell and Kase pointed out: "The fact is that innumerable soldiers, sailors and pilots were determined to die, to become eirei, that is ‘guardian spirits’ of the country. [...] Many Japanese felt that to be enshrined at [[Yasukuni]] was a special honour because the Emperor twice a year visited the shrine to pay homage. Yasukuni is the only shrine, deifying common men, which the Emperor would visit to pay his respects".<ref name="Axell, p.35"/> Young Japanese people were indoctrinated from an earliest age with these ideals. Following the commencement of the ''kamikaze'' tactic, newspapers and books ran advertisements, articles, and stories regarding the suicide bombers, to aid in recruiting and support. In October 1944, the ''Nippon Times'' quoted Lieutenant Sekio Nishina: "The spirit of the Special Attack Corps is the great spirit that runs in the blood of every Japanese…. The crashing action which simultaneously kills the enemy and oneself without fail is called the Special Attack…. Every Japanese is capable of becoming a member of the Special Attack Corps".<ref>Axell, p.36</ref> Publishers also played up the idea that the ''kamikaze'' were enshrined at Yasukuni and ran exaggerated stories of ''kamikaze'' bravery – there were even fairy tales for little children that promoted the ''kamikaze''. A Foreign Office official named Toshikazu Kase said: "It was customary for GHQ [in Tokyo] to make false announcements of victory in utter disregard of facts, and for the elated and complacent public to believe them".<ref>Axell, pp.38, 41, 43</ref> While many stories were falsified, some were true, such as the story of Kiyu Ishikawa who saved a Japanese ship when he crashed his plane into a [[torpedo]] that an American [[submarine]] had launched. The sergeant major was posthumously promoted to second lieutenant by the emperor and was enshrined at Yasukuni.<ref name="Axell, p.41">Axell, p.41</ref> Stories like these, which showed the kind of praise and honor death produced, encouraged young Japanese to volunteer for the Special Attack Corps and instilled a desire in the youth to die as a ''kamikaze''. Ceremonies were carried out before ''kamikaze'' pilots departed on their final mission. They were given the [[flag of Japan]] or the [[rising sun flag]] (Japanese naval ensign), inscribed with inspirational and spiritual words, [[Nambu pistol]] or [[katana]] and drank [[sake]] before they took off generally. They put on a ''[[hachimaki]]'' headband with the rising sun, and a ''[[senninbari]]'', a "belt of a thousand stitches" sewn by a thousand women who made one stitch each.<ref>Hobbes {{page number}}</ref> They also composed and read a [[death poem]], a tradition stemming from the [[samurai]], who did it before committing ''[[seppuku]]''. Pilots carried [[prayer]]s from their families and were given [[military decoration]]s. [[Image:Chiran high school girls wave kamikaze pilot.jpg|right|thumb|Chiran high school girls wave farewell with cherry blossom branches to departing ''kamikaze'' pilot in a [[Ki-43]]-II ''Hayabusa''.]] While commonly perceived that volunteers signed up in droves for ''kamikaze'' missions, it has also been contended that there was extensive coercion and peer pressure involved in recruiting soldiers for the sacrifice. Their motivations in "volunteering" were complex and not simply about patriotism or bringing honour to their families. And at least one of these pilots was a conscripted Korean with a Japanese name, adopted under the pre-war ''[[Soshi-kaimei]]'' ordinance that compelled Koreans to take Japanese personal names.<ref>[http://www.hindu.com/2005/08/22/stories/2005082202742000.htm The Hindu : International : A "Japanese hero" goes home]</ref> Out of the 1,036 IJA ''kamikaze'' pilots who died in sorties from Chiran and other Japanese air bases, during the Battle of Okinawa, 11 were Koreans.<ref>In a 2001 Japanese movie, ''Hotaru'' ("Firefly") directed by [[Yasuo Furuhata]], one character named "Kanayama", is a Korean ''kamikaze'' pilot. Kanayama is a composite of two actual ''kamikaze'' pilots, Second Lieutenant Fumihiro Mitsuyama and Sergeant Saburo Miyakawa ([http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/kamikaze/films/japanese/hotaru/index.htm Bill Gordon, 2007, "Hotaru (Firefly)" (Review)]. Access date: September 15, 2007.</ref><ref>Akabane and Ishii 2001, 130-9; Asahi Shimbun Seibu Honsha 1990, 15-6</ref> According to legend, young pilots on ''kamikaze'' missions often flew southwest from Japan over the {{convert|922|m|ft|abbr=on}} Mount Kaimon. The mountain is also called "''Satsuma Fuji''" (meaning a mountain like [[Mount Fuji]] but located in the [[Satsuma Province]] region). Suicide mission pilots looked over their shoulders to see this, the most southern mountain on the Japanese mainland, while they were in the air, said farewell to their country, and saluted the mountain. Residents on [[Kikai Island|Kikaishima Island]], east of [[Amami Ōshima]], say that pilots from suicide mission units dropped flowers from the air as they departed on their final missions. According to legend, the hills above [[Kikai airport|Kikaishima airport]] have beds of [[cornflower]] that bloom in early May.<ref>Jiro Kosaka, 1995, ''Kyō ware Ikiteari''</ref> With the passing of time, some prominent Japanese military figures who survived the war became critical of the policy. [[Saburo Sakai]], an IJN [[flying ace|ace]] said: <blockquote>"A kamikaze is a surprise attack, according to our ancient war tactics. Surprise attacks will be successful the first time, maybe two or three times. But what fool would continue the same attacks for ten months? [[Emperor Hirohito]] must have realized it. He should have said 'Stop.'<br /><br />"Even now, many faces of my students come up when I close my eyes. So many students are gone. Why did headquarters continue such silly attacks for ten months! Fools! [[Minoru Genda|Genda]], who went to America—all those men lied that all men volunteered for kamikaze units. They lied."</blockquote> In 2006, [[Tsuneo Watanabe]], Editor-in-Chief of the ''[[Yomiuri Shimbun]]'', criticized Japanese nationalists' glorification of ''kamikaze'' attacks:<ref>New York Times, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50C11FB3E5A0C728DDDAB0894DE404482 ''THE SATURDAY PROFILE; Shadow Shogun Steps Into Light, to Change Japan.''] Published: February 11, 2006. accessed February 15, 2007</ref><ref>International Herald Tribune, [http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/02/10/news/MOGUL.php ''Publisher dismayed by Japanese nationalism.''] Published: February 10, 2006. accessed March 11, 2007</ref> <blockquote>"It's all a lie that they left filled with braveness and joy, crying, 'Long live the emperor!' They were sheep at a slaughterhouse. Everybody was looking down and tottering. Some were unable to stand up and were carried and pushed into the plane by maintenance soldiers."</blockquote> ==Quotations== {{bquote| I cannot predict the outcome of the air battles but you will be making a mistake if you should regard Special Attack operations as normal methods. The right way is to attack the enemy with skill and return to the base with good results. A plane should be utilized over and over again. That’s the way to fight a war. The current thinking is skewed. Otherwise you cannot expect to improve air power. There will be no progress if flyers continue to die. |||Lieutenant Commander Iwatani|''Taiyo'' (Ocean) magazine, March 1945.<ref name="Axell, p.41"/>}} {{bquote| ''Zwei Seelen wohnen auch in mein[em] Herz''!! (Ah, two souls [tamashi’i] reside in my heart [kokoro]!!) After all I am just a human being. Sometimes my chest pounds with excitement when I think of the day I will fly into the sky. I trained my mind and body as hard as I could and am anxious for the day I can use them to their full capacity in fighting. I think my life and death belong to the mission. Yet, at other times, I envy those science majors who remain at home [exempt from the draft]. … One of my souls looks to heaven, while the other is attracted to the earth. I wish to enter the Navy as soon as possible so that I can devote myself to the task. I hope that the days when I am tormented by stupid thoughts will pass quickly. |||Sasaki Hachiro<ref>Ohnuki-Tierney, pp.65-66</ref>}} {{bquote| It is easy to talk about death in the abstract, as the ancient philosophers discussed. But it is real death I fear, and I don’t know if I can overcome the fear. Even for a short life, there are many memories. For someone who had a good life, it is very difficult to part with it. But I reached a point of no return. I must plunge into an enemy vessel.<br /> To be honest, I cannot say that the wish to die for the emperor is genuine, coming from my heart. However, it is decided for me that I die for the emperor. |||Hayashi Ichizo<ref>Ohnuki-Tierney, p.163</ref> }} == Film == ''Saigo no Tokkotai'' aka The Last Kamikaze (1970) - Directed by Yahagi Toshihiko and Starring [[Koji Tsuruta]], [[Ken Takakura]] and [[Shinichi Chiba]] ==See also== * [[Banzai charge]] * [[Bushidō]] * [[Giretsu special forces operations|Giretsu]] * [[Living torpedoes]] * [[Ramming]] * [[Suicide weapon]] * "''[[Umi yukaba]]''" * [[Vehicle explosion]] ==References== ===Notes=== {{reflist|2}} ===Bibliography=== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book | last1 = Axell | first1 = Albert | last2=Hideaki | first2 = Kase| year = 2002 | title = Kamikaze: Japan's suicide gods | publisher = Longman | location = New York | isbn = 0-582-77232-X }} * {{cite book | last = Brown | first = David | year = 1990 | title = Fighting Elites: Kamikaze | location = New York | publisher = Gallery Books | ISBN = 9780831726713 }} * {{cite book | last = Hobbes | first = Nicholas | year = 2003 | title = Essential militaria | location = London | publisher = Atlantic Books | isbn = 9781843542292 }} *{{cite book | last = Hoyt | first = Edwin P. | year = 1993 | title = The Last Kamikaze | publisher = Praeger | isbn = 0-275-94067-5 }} *{{cite book | last = Inoguchi | first = Rikihei | coauthors = Nakajima, Tadashi and Pineau, Roger | year = 1959 | title = The Divine Wind | location = London | publisher = Hutchinson & Co. (Publishers) Ltd. }} * Mahon, John K. (May 1959). ''The Pacific Historical Review.'' Vol. 28, No. 2. *{{cite book | last = Millot | first = Bernard | year = 1971 | title = Divine Thunder: The life and death of the Kamikazes | publisher = Macdonald | isbn = 0-356-03856-4 | id= {{OCLC|8142990}} }} * Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko. (2006). ''Kamikaze Diaries: Reflections of Japanese Student Soldiers.'' Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226619507 * {{cite book | last = Sheftall | first = Mordecai G. | year = 2005 | title = Blossoms in the Wind: Human Legacies of the Kamikaze | publisher = NAL Caliber | isbn = 0-451-21487-0 }} * {{cite book |last= Toland |first= John |year= 1970 |title= The rising sun; the decline and fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936-1945. |location= New York |publisher= Random House |id = {{OCLC|105915}} }} *{{cite book | last = Ugaki | first = Matome | authorlink = Matome Ugaki | coauthors = Masataka Chihaya (Translator) | year = 1991 | title = Fading Victory: The Diary of Admiral Matome Ugaki, 1941-1945 | publisher = University of Pittsburgh Press | isbn = 0-8229-3665-8 | url=http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/kamikaze/writings/books/ugaki/index.htm }} * {{cite book | last = Warner | first = Denis & Peggy | coauthors = Sadao Seno | year = 1984; first published 1982 | title = The Sacred Warriors: Japan’s Suicide Legions | publisher = Avon Books (previously Van Nostrand Reinhold) | isbn = 0-380-67678-8 | url=http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/kamikaze/books/general/warner/index.htm }} * {{cite book | last = Willmott | first = H.P | coauthors = Cross, Robin & Messenger, Charles | year = 2004 | title = World War II | location= London | publisher = Dorling Kindersley | isbn= 9781405305877 }} {{refend}} ==Further reading== *{{cite book |author=Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko |title=Kamikaze Diaries: Reflections of Japanese Student Soldiers |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=9780226619514}} *{{cite book |author=Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko |title=Kamikaze, Cherry Blossoms, and Nationalisms: The Militarization of Aesthetics in Japanese History |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2002 |pages= |isbn=9780226620916}} ==External links== {{commons cat|Kamikaze}} *[http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/kamikaze/index.htm Kamikaze Images] – Explores different Western and Japanese portrayals and perceptions of kamikaze pilots. *[http://www.geocities.jp/kamikazes_site_e/ Personal website of Mr Nobu] *[http://www.dayofthekamikaze.com/d4y.html Dayofthekamikaze.com] *[http://www.japanvisitor.com/index.php?cID=359&pID=1089 An ex-kamikaze pilot creates a new world] *[http://www.antithesiscommon.com/Issue1/pg4.htm "Gyokusai"] *[http://www.tcr.org/tcr/essays/EPrize_Kamikaze.pdf "Who became Kamikaze Pilots..."] *[http://www.tokkotai.or.jp/kikanshi/kaihou_No49.htm www.tokkotai.or.jp] *[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-1640211,00.html#cid=rssfeed&attr=World "The kamikaze pilot who chose life before empire"] *[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/619508.html Excerpt from ''Kamikaze Diaries''] *[http://www.geocities.jp/torikai007/1945/tokkou.html The End of Kamikaze''] (Japanese) *[http://www.smithsoniannetworks.com/site/smithsonian/show_kamikaze.do Day of the Kamikaze, Smithsonian Networks] *[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,501020902-344136,00.html "Ascent of the Fireflies"], TIME about Tome Torihama called "Kamikaze Mom" *[http://www.chiran1945.jp/ TOEI movie "I will die only for you above all"] (Orewa Kimi no tamenikoso Shiniyuku / 俺は、君のためにこそ死ににいく) about Tome Torihama ("Kamikaze Mom"), the Chiran high school girls and young Army kamikaze pilots flying Ki-43 Hayabusa fighters, [http://www.amazon.co.jp/gp/switch-language/product/B000TLYCSG?language=en%5FJP, DVD] (2007) *[http://ww2db.com/other.php?other_id=18 WW2DB: Kamikaze Doctrine] *[http://ww2history.com/videos/Pacific/Kamikazes What motivated the Kamikazes?] on WW2History.com * [http://www.popsci.com/archive-viewer?id=xiADAAAAMBAJ&pg=65&query=Volume+146 The Rising Sun Pins Its Hope on Jap Suicide Killers] propaganda article in June 1945 [[Popular Science]] in attempt to downplay the Kamikazes {{JapanEmpireNavbox}} [[Category:Imperial Japanese Navy]] [[Category:Military history of Japan]] [[Category:World War II Japanese suicide weapons]] [[Category:Aviators who committed suicide]] [[Category:Seppuku]] [[Category:Military history of Japan during 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